[12]부여-고구려 예맥(濊貊), 숙신-읍루 퉁구스, 선비 연(燕): 친밀한 역사 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Puyeo-Koguryeo Ye-maek the Sushen-Yilou Tungus, and the Xianbei Yan | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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삼국지 위서 동이전은, 말갈-여진의 선조이며 숙신의 후예인 읍루가 한(漢)나라 때부터 220~226년경까지 부여에 예속(臣屬)돼왔다고 말한다 3세기 말경에 모용선비가 본격적으로 요하 유역으로 진출하면서, 몽골적인 선비족과 예맥 퉁구스와의 친밀한 관계(즉, 전쟁관계)가 재연된다. 예맥 쪽의 명칭은 고조선에서 고구려로 바뀌었는데, 선비 쪽은 여전히 연(燕)이라는 이름을 가지고 서로 싸우는 것이다. 기원전 400년경에 고조선과 옛 연 나라간의 충돌을 통해서 철기제조 기술이 한반도에 전해졌고, 말등자의 사용법은 모용선비와 고구려가 끊임 없이 싸우는 와중에 전해진 것 같다. 본 연재는 영문과 국문번역을 동시에 제공한다. 편집자 주 The Puyeo-Koguryeo Ye-maek the Sushen-Yilou Tungus, and the Xianbei Yan intimate histories Wontack Hong Professor, Seoul University
Puyeo borders Xianbei in the west, Yilou in the east, Koguryeo in the south, and Nen-jiang (Nonni River) in the north. Among the Eastern Barbarians, onl y the Puyeo occupies the great plain, raising grains and livestock. The elders say that their ancestors (from Gori, according to the foundation myth) took refuge in this Ye-maek land a long time ago. Precious jade artifacts are handed down from generation to generation in the royal house. [It reminds us of the Hong-shan jade tradition.] Government officials are designated after livestock such as horse-ka[n], cow-ka[n], pig-ka[n] and dog-ka[n], the lower official being in charge of several hundred households and the higher one several thousand. When holding rites to the Heavens in January, they drink, sing and dance every day. They offer drinking cups to each other and ceremonially wash every cup. Since every one keeps singing on the road, the sounds of singing can be heard all day long. [They surely have enjoyed the modern-day Kara-oke!] They adore white clothes, wearing caps decorated with gold and silver, jackets with large sleeves, trousers and leather shoes. Like the Xiong-nu, when an elder brother dies, the younger one takes his wife. Keeping armor and weapons in each house, all those ka people [the aristocratic clans] engage in fighting, while the lower classes supply food for them. They bury the living, sometimes amounting to a hundred people, with the dead. As the Xianbei and Koguryeo became stronger during the last years of the Later Han dynasty, the Gong-sun ruler married a daughter of his family member to the king of Puyeo. 2 The Dongyi-zhuan also gives a brief description of the Yilou. The Yilou are the descendants of Sushen people [and the ancestors of the Mohe and Ruzhen people]. Yilou is located in the mountainous forest region northeast of Puyeo that reaches the ocean. They look similar to the Puyeo people, but their language is different from that of Puyeo and Koguryeo. They produce grains, cows, horses, and hemp. They are very strong and courageous. Each village has a chieftain but they do not have a king. They always live in the forest, enduring a much colder climate than Puyeo. They raise pigs for food, and use pig skin for clothes and pig fats to grease their body in winter for protection against wind and cold. They use long bows which are as powerful as crossbows, apply poison on the (blue) stone arrowheads, and shoot arrows with deadly accurate marksmanship. They were the subjects of Puyeo since the time of the Han dynasty. As the Puyeo exacted heavy taxes and corvée, they rebelled in 220-226. The Puyeo made quite a few punitive expeditions against the Yilou, but could not subjugate them because, though the Yilou were small in number, they dwelt in extremely rugged forest difficult to penetrate.3 The above records give a brief but rather clear idea of the ancient relationship between the Yemaek Tungus and the Mohe-Ruzhen Tungus. According to the Dongyi-zhuan, the language of Koguryeo was identical to that of the Puyeo, but these two languages were different from the language of Yilou people who were the descendants of Sushen. If the Chinese records were correct, the language of the Ye-maek Tungus in central Manchuria must have been substantially different from that of the Mohe-Ruzhen Tungus of eastern Manchuria. In 285, Murong Hui invaded Puyeo, prompting the king to commit suicide. In 346, Murong Huang took the Puyeo king and over 50,000 of his people prisoner. Upon the extinction of the Xianbei state of Former Yan in 370, Puyeo passed under the protection of Koguryeo. Subsequently, with the rise of the Mohe people, the Puyeo royal house was driven from its ancient territory and surrendered itself to Koguryeo in 494, completely extinguishing its existence. The area where the Song-hua River and the Nen-jiang come together is the best agricultural land, and it is a continuation of the Liao region, as the drainages are separated by onl y low hills. The entire area constitutes the vast Dongbei Plain. According to Di Cosmo (2002: 72), a rich inventory of iron knives, daggers, and armor dated to the ninth century BC were found along the Amur River, and “there are indications that relations existed between Transbaikalia and the Chinese northeast, possibly following the ancient routes of communication through the forests of Manchuria and on the large waterways that run north to south: the Song-hua, Nonni, and Liao Rivers.” The Dongyi-zhuan also gives a brief description of Koguryeo. Being located in a mountainous valley, Koguryeo is always short of foodstuffs. The Koguryeo people are quick tempered and ferocious, and fond of pillaging. Their language and customs are similar to those of Puyeo, but their clothing and temperament are somewhat different. Their king comes from one of the five aristocratic clans, and always takes his queen from a specific clan. The ruling clans never work in the fields, and the lower classes supply them with foodstuffs. They enjoy singing and dancing every night, and hold rites to Heaven in October. They construct tombs by piling up stones, spending enormous resources. They are strong and adept in warfare, producing excellent bows and conquering all the Ye-maek people. Their horses are small and adept at climbing mountains. Wang Mang attempted to use the Koguryeo troops to attack the Xiong-nu, but the Koguryeo soldiers merely plundered local provinces. During the second century (125-67 AD), Koguryeo frequently invaded Liao-dong. on its way to attack Xian-ping –an attack recorded, but without a specific date, in the Dongyi-zhuan records-- the Koguryeo army killed the Governor of Dai-fang and captured the wife and children of the Governor of Le-lang. In 242, King Dong-cheon (227-48) of Koguryeo pillaged Xian-ping.4 Xian-ping was the place where the Liao dynasty established its Supreme Capital.
In Puyeo and Koguryeo, kings were at first chosen by some sort of elective process, a la the Xianbei tradition, alternating the kingship among important clan leaders. (The same practice appeared also in Silla.) Furthermore, even when the right to the throne became permanently secured by a single royal clan, the system of succession was often lateral. Upon the death of King Koguk-chon in 197, his younger brother married the widowed queen and became King San-sang. The marriage to sister-in-law originated from the custom of Puyeo and Xiong-nu. In Puyeo, the shift to lineal succession is suggested by the records of the King Ui-ryo (?-285 AD) succeeding his father on the throne at the age of six. The father-to-son succession is recorded in Koguryeo from the reign of King San-sang (197-227 AD). Even then, the queen was drawn from an important non-royal ruling clan. The political authority often lay in the hands of the senior members of the royal clan or of the aristocratic clan from which the queens were drawn. The Puyeo and the Koguryeo were not nomads, and yet somehow they had retained nomadic social formations of a martial outlook and maintained an aristocratic class whose main occupation had been the practice of war (cf. Di Cosmo, 2002, p. 43). During the third century, Koguryeo was still entrenched in the Hun-Yalu river valleys. In the late third century, the Murong tribe of Xianbei moved down into the Liao River basin and cut off Le-lang from the Jin empire. The Samguk-sagi records frequent armed conflicts between the Koguryeo and the Murong Xianbei from 293 to 296. According to the Jin-shu, Murong Hui’s ancestors had lived for generations among the Northern Barbarians, and they were called Dong-hu. At the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220-65), Murong Hui’s great-grand-father led all his subjects into Liao-xi and settled there. We do not know why Hui’s father decided to leave Liao-xi and to move into the north of Liao-dong. When he died in the year 283, his younger brother Shan took over the leadership. In 285, Shan was killed by his subjects and the people proclaimed Hui as their chieftain.6 Murong Hui invaded Puyeo in 285, prompting the king to commit suicide. In 311, the Xiong-nu sacked the Jin capital at Luo-yang, and Koguryeo took over the Le-lang commandery in 313. In 319, Koguryeo, in coalition with two Xianbei tribes, the Yu-wen and the Duan, attacked Murong Hui (r.285-333), but was defeated by the troops led by Hui and his heir apparent Huang. Huang was the second son of Hui and the first son of Hui’s legitimate wife who was a former princess of the Duan.7 Hui let another son defend Liao-dong. In 320, the Koguryeo army attacked Liao-dong but was beaten back. The armed conflicts between the Xianbei and Koguryeo continued from 339 to 343. The Zi-zhi-tong-jian records the advice of Murong Han given to Huang (r.333-349). “Our nearest neighbors, the Koguryeo, are always vigilant. They know that as soon as we have annihilated the Yu-wen, we will attack them. Therefore, if we move to invade the territory of Yu-wen, they surely would attack our country while our army is abroad. Were we to leave a few of our troops to guard the home country, the army of Koguryeo would ravage the country. Were we to leave a sufficient number of troops to prevent an invasion, our expeditionary army would be too weak to conquer the Yu-wen. We should, therefore, first conquer Koguryeo.” Huang invaded Koguryeo in 342-3 with forty thousand of his elite soldiers, and captured its capital Hwan-do. At that time, Huang was further advised by one of his generals: “It is impossible to keep Koguryeo occupied. The king managed to escape and the people are scattered and hidden in the mountains. Upon our departure they will emerge from their hiding places and gather together. Let us take Chao’s mother along as prisoner, and remove the corpse of his father to Long-cheng. Under such circumstances Chao [King Ko-guk-won] will beg for the restoration of his parents. Then you may return the corpse of his father and may treat Chao with kindness and give him your confidence. In my opinion this is the best way of handling Koguryeo.” Huang gave his consent.10 We see the replay of an intimate relationship (i.e., armed conflicts) between the Mongolic Xianbei and Ye-maek Tungus.11 The name of the Ye-maek Tungus antagonist changed from Chosun to Koguryeo, but the name of the Xianbei opponent stayed identical, “Yan.” According to Farris (1998: 77), the Xianbei learned to use the stirrup c. 300 (at first slung over onl y the left side of the animal), and “the first Koreans to use the horse in combat were soldiers of Koguryeo doing battle with the Xianbei.” The technique of using stirrups seems to have entered the Korean peninsula courtesy of the incessant fighting between the Xianbei and Koguryeo. It is interesting to recall that iron-making technology was also transferred through the armed conflicts between the Old Yan and Old Chosun around 400 BC.
The incessant fighting between the Mongolic Xianbei and Ye-maek Tungus seems to have generated a strong enough cultural assimilation between these two peoples as to find in the History of Liao the statement that the Oidan Liao, the descendants the Xianbei, had originated from the old Chosun land, having the identical customs and tradition of “the Ki-ja (Ji-ji)’s Eight Clauses of Instruction” as the Chosun.12 12 遼史 卷四十九 志第十八 禮志一 遼本朝鮮故壤 箕子八條之敎 流風遺俗 蓋有存者 [각주] |
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